Power Semiconductor Device with Oscillation Prevention

ABSTRACT

There are disclosed herein various implementations of composite semiconductor devices with active oscillation control. In one exemplary implementation, a normally OFF composite semiconductor device comprises a normally ON III-nitride power transistor and a low voltage (LV) device cascoded with the normally ON III-nitride power transistor to form the normally OFF composite semiconductor device. The LV device may be configured to include one or both of a reduced output resistance due to, for example, a modified body implant and a reduced transconductance due to, for example, a modified oxide thickness to cause a gain of the composite semiconductor device to be less than approximately 10,000.

The present application claims the benefit of and priority to a pendingprovisional application entitled “III-Nitride Optimized Rugged CascodePower Device,” Ser. No. 61/454,743 filed on Mar. 21, 2011. Thedisclosure in this pending provisional application is herebyincorporated fully by reference into the present application.

BACKGROUND

I. Definitions

As used herein, the phrase “III-nitride” or “III-N” refers to a compoundsemiconductor that includes nitrogen and at least one group III elementincluding aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and boron (B), andincluding but not limited to any of its alloys, such as aluminum galliumnitride (Al_(x)Ga_((1-x))N), indium gallium nitride (In_(y)Ga_((1-y))N),aluminum indium gallium nitride (Al_(x)In_(y)Ga_((1-x-y))N), galliumarsenide phosphide nitride (GaAs_(a)P_(b)N_((1-a-b))), aluminum indiumgallium arsenide phosphide nitride(Al_(x)In_(y)Ga_((1-x-y))As_(a)P_(b)N_((1-a-ab))), for example.III-nitride also refers generally to any polarity including but notlimited to Ga-polar, N-polar, semi-polar or non-polar crystalorientations. A III-nitride material may also include either theWurtzitic, Zincblende or mixed polytypes, and may includesingle-crystal, monocrystal, polycrystal, or amorphous crystalstructures.

Also, as used herein, the terms “LV-device,” “low voltage semiconductordevice,” “low voltage transistor,” and the like, refer to a low voltagedevice, with a typical voltage range of up to approximately 50 volts.Typical voltage ratings include low voltage (LV)˜0-50V, midvoltage(MV)˜50-200V, high voltage (HV)˜200-1200V and ultra high voltage(UHV)˜>1200V. The device can comprise any suitable semiconductormaterial that forms a field-effect transistor (FET) or diode, or acombination of a FET and a diode. Suitable semiconductor materialsinclude group IV semiconductor materials such as silicon, strainedsilicon, SiGe, SiC, and group III-V materials including III-As, III-P,III-nitride or any of their alloys.

II. Background Art

III-nitride materials are semiconductor compounds that have a relativelywide, direct bandgap and potentially strong piezoelectric polarizations,and can enable high breakdown fields, high saturation velocities, andthe creation of two-dimensional electron gases (2-DEGs). As a result,III-nitride materials are used in many power applications such asdepletion mode (e.g., normally ON) power field-effect transistors (powerFETs), high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs), and diodes.

In power management applications where normally OFF characteristics ofpower devices are desirable, a depletion mode III-nitride powertransistor can be cascoded with a low voltage (LV) semiconductor deviceto produce an enhancement mode composite power device. However, theutility and durability of such a composite device can be limitedaccording to characteristics of the III-nitride power transistor and LVsemiconductor device being used in combination. For example, whenimplemented with an LV semiconductor device to form a composite deviceused in high current applications, the gate of the III-nitride powertransistor may tend to oscillate when configured in series withsemiconductor package inductances and the output capacitance of the LVsemiconductor device, for example, causing the ITT-nitride powertransistor to be undesirably turned OFF and ON. Unless, controlled anddampened, such oscillations may adversely affect the functionality andutility of the composite semiconductor device, and can also bedestructive and reduce the durability of the composite semiconductordevice.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure is directed to a composite semiconductor devicewith active oscillation prevention, substantially as shown in and/ordescribed in connection with at least one of the figures, and as setforth more completely in the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 presents a diagram showing one exemplary implementation of acomposite semiconductor device.

FIG. 2 shows a more detailed implementation of a composite semiconductordevice with active oscillation control, corresponding generally to theimplementation shown by FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 shows a cross-sectional view of one implementation of a lowvoltage (LV) transistor suitable for use in a composite semiconductordevice and configured to provide active oscillation control.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description contains specific information pertaining toimplementations in the present disclosure. One skilled in the art willrecognize that the present disclosure may be implemented in a mannerdifferent from that specifically discussed herein. The drawings in thepresent application and their accompanying detailed description aredirected to merely exemplary implementations. Unless noted otherwise,like or corresponding elements among the figures may be indicated bylike or corresponding reference numerals. Moreover, the drawings andillustrations in the present application are generally not to scale, andare not intended to correspond to actual relative dimensions.

III-nitride materials include, for example, gallium nitride (GaN) andits alloys such as aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN), indium galliumnitride (InGaN), and aluminum indium gallium nitride (AlInGaN). Thesematerials are semiconductor compounds that have a relatively wide,direct bandgap and strong piezoelectric polarizations, and can enablehigh breakdown fields, high saturation velocities, and the creation oftwo-dimensional electron gases (2-DEGs). As a result, and as notedabove, III-nitride materials such as GaN are used in manymicroelectronic applications such as depletion mode (e.g., normally ON)power field-effect transistors (power FETs), high electron mobilitytransistors (HEMTs), and diodes.

As further noted above, in power management applications where normallyOFF characteristics of power devices are desirable, a depletion modeIII-nitride power transistor can be cascoded with a low voltage (LV)semiconductor device to produce an enhancement mode composite powerdevice. However, the utility and durability of such a composite devicecan be limited according to characteristics of the III-nitride powertransistor and LV semiconductor device being cascoded together. Forexample, when implemented in combination with an LV semiconductor deviceto form a composite device used in high current applications, the gateof the III-nitride power transistor may tend to oscillate whenconfigured in series with semiconductor package inductances and theoutput capacitance of the LV semiconductor device, for example, causingthe III-nitride power transistor to be turned OFF and ON. Unlesscontrolled, such oscillations can be destructive, and may undesirablyreduce the durability of the composite semiconductor device. Thus, inorder to render such composite semiconductor devices suitable foroperation in power management systems, where high slew rate conditionsmay be encountered, the composite device should be configured so as tobe oscillation resistant.

The present application is directed to a composite semiconductor devicewith active oscillation control. According to one implementation, thecomposite semiconductor device may include a III-nitride powertransistor, which may be a normally ON device, for example, and an LVdevice cascoded with the III-nitride power transistor. \The cascodedcombination of the LV device and the normally ON III-nitride powertransistor can be implemented to produce a normally OFF compositesemiconductor device. As disclosed herein, the LV device cascoded withthe normally ON III-nitride power transistor can be configured so as tolimit the gain of the composite semiconductor device to provide activeoscillation control for the normally OFF composite semiconductor device.

Referring to FIG. 1, FIG. 1 shows an exemplary implementation of acomposite semiconductor device. As shown in FIG. 1, compositesemiconductor device 100 includes III-nitride power transistor 110 andLV device 120 cascoded with III-nitride power transistor 110. As furthershown in FIG. 1, LV device 120 includes LV transistor 140 and LV diode130. Also shown in FIG. 1 are composite source 102, composite drain 104,and composite gate 106 of composite semiconductor device 100.

III-nitride power transistor 110 may be formed of gallium nitride (GaN),and may be implemented as an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) or as aheterostructure FET (HFET), for example. In one implementation,III-nitride power transistor 110 may take the form of ametal-insulator-semiconductor FET (MISFET or MISHFET), such as ametal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET). Alternatively, when implementedas an HFET, III-nitride power transistor 110 may be a HEMT configured toproduce a 2-DEG. According to one implementation, for example,III-nitride power transistor 110, for example a III-nitride field-effecttransistor (III-N FET) or a III-nitride high electron mobilitytransistor (III-N HEMT), may be a high voltage (HV) device configured tosustain a drain voltage of approximately 600V and having a gate ratingof approximately 40V. It is noted that in some implementations,composite semiconductor device 100 may utilize an insulated gate bipolartransistor (IGBT) as a power device in place of a III-nitride FET orHEMT.

LV device 120 is shown to include LV transistor 140 and LV diode 130. Inone implementation, LV diode 130 may simply be a body diode of LVtransistor 140, while in another implementation LV diode 130 may be adiscrete diode coupled to LV transistor 140 as shown in FIG. 1 toproduce LV device 120. LV device 120 may be implemented as an LV groupIV device, such as an LV silicon device having a breakdown voltage ofapproximately 25V, for example. According to one implementation, LVdevice 120 may be an LV FET, such as an LV silicon MISFET or MOSFET, forexample, including LV body diode 130.

The cascoded combination of III-nitride power transistor 110 and LVdevice 120 produces composite semiconductor device 100, which accordingto the implementation shown in FIG. 1 results in a composite threeterminal device functioning in effect as a FET having composite source102 and composite gate 106 provided by LV device 120, and compositedrain 104 provided by III-nitride power transistor 110. Moreover, and aswill be described in greater detail below, composite semiconductordevice 100 may be implemented as an ETV composite device configured tohave active oscillation control.

Continuing to FIG. 2, FIG. 2 shows a more detailed implementation of acomposite semiconductor device with active oscillation control,corresponding generally to the implementation shown by FIG. 1. Compositesemiconductor device 200 includes III-nitride power transistor 210,which can be for example a III-N FET or a III-N HEMT, and LV device 220cascoded with III-nitride power transistor 210. As further shown in FIG.2, LV device 220 includes LV transistor 240 and LV diode 230, which maybe a body diode of LV transistor 240, for example. Also shown in FIG. 2are composite source 202, composite drain 204, and composite gate 206 ofcomposite semiconductor device 200, as well as output capacitance 218(C1) measured across III-nitride power transistor 210, outputcapacitance 248 (C2) measured across LV device 220 (e.g., LV transistor240 having LV body diode 230), and semiconductor package inductances 207(L1) and 209 (L2).

Composite semiconductor device 200 having composite source 202,composite drain 204, composite gate 206, and formed from HI-nitridepower transistor 210 in combination with LV device 220 including LVtransistor 240 and LV diode 230 corresponds to composite semiconductordevice 100 having composite source 102, composite drain 104, compositegate 106, and formed from III-nitride power transistor 110 incombination with LV device 120 including LV transistor 140 and LV diode130, in FIG. 1, and may share any of the features previously attributedto the corresponding components of composite semiconductor device 100and described above.

As shown in FIG. 2, LV transistor 240 is cascoded with III-nitride powertransistor 210 to produce composite semiconductor device 200. That is tosay, drain 244 of LV transistor 240 is coupled to source 212 ofIII-nitride power transistor 210, source 242 of LV transistor providescomposite source 202 for composite semiconductor device 200, and gate250 of LV transistor 240 provides composite gate 206 for compositesemiconductor device 200. In addition, drain 214 of III-nitride powertransistor 210 provides composite drain 204 for composite semiconductordevice 200, while gate 216 of III-nitride power transistor 210 iscoupled to source 242 of LV transistor 240.

The operation of composite semiconductor device 200 implemented as anormally OFF device formed from LV transistor 240 cascoded with normallyON III-nitride power transistor 210 will now be described by referenceto that specific, but merely exemplary, implementation. As previouslynoted above, in the absence of the active oscillation control disclosedherein, a composite semiconductor device such as composite semiconductordevice 200 may be susceptible to oscillations in some high currentapplications. During high slew rate conditions, for example, source 212of III-nitride power transistor 210 may oscillate when configured inseries with the circuit including output capacitance 218, semiconductorpackage inductance 207, and output capacitance 248, (e.g., C1-L1-C2) ofFIG. 2. Oscillation of source 212 may cause gate 216 of III-nitridepower transistor 210 to oscillate as well, which can, in turn, causenormally ON III-nitride power transistor 210 to be switched OFF and ONundesirably. Unless controlled, those oscillations can be destructive.

In some implementations, the described oscillation phenomenon can becontrolled by optimally reducing semiconductor package inductance 207(L1) and/or 209 (L2). In one implementation, for instance, semiconductorpackage inductance 207, and semiconductor package inductance 209 (L2),may be reduced using a die-on-die configuration. Specific examples forimplementing a die-on-die configuration are disclosed in U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/448,347 entitled “III-Nitride TransistorStacked with FET in a Package,” filed on Mar. 2, 2011, as well as inProvisional Patent Application No. 61/448,617 entitled “III-NitrideTransistor Stacked with Diode in a Package,” filed on Mar. 2, 2011, bothof which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

According to another implementation, semiconductor package inductances207 and 209 may be reduced through monolithic integration of III-nitridepower transistor 210 and LV device 220. For example, III-nitride powertransistor 210 and LV device 220 may be monolithically integrated asdisclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/455,117, entitled“Monolithic Vertically Integrated Composite Group III-V and Group IVSemiconductor Device and Method for Fabricating Same”, filed on May 28,2009 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,915,645 on Mar. 29, 2011; as well asby U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/653,240, entitled “HighlyConductive Source/Drain Contacts in III-Nitride Transistors”, filed onDec. 10, 2009; U.S. Patent Application Number 12/928,103, entitled“Monolithic Integration of Silicon and Group III-V Devices”, filed onDec. 3, 2010; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/020,243 entitled“Efficient High Voltage Switching Circuits and Monolithic Integration ofSame”, filed on Feb. 3, 2011, each of which is hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety.

Alternatively, and as disclosed herein, undesirable oscillations bycomposite semiconductor device 200 may be reduced or eliminated throughimplementation of an active oscillation control, which may beeffectuated through configuration of LV transistor 240 to have a reducedoutput resistance and/or a reduced transconductance due to a modifiedoxide thickness (T_(OX)). That is to say, in those applications wherecomposite semiconductor device 200 is designed for high currentoperation, it may be advantageous to optimize (e.g., limit) the gain (A)of composite semiconductor device 200 from a small signal modelingperspective to less than approximately ten thousand (10,000) in order toprovide for stability. For example, LV transistor 240 can be designedand formed such that one or both of the output resistance of LVtransistor 240 and the transconductance partially determined by T_(OX)of LV transistor 240 are optimized so as to limit the gain of compositesemiconductor device to a range from approximately 1.0 to less thanapproximately 10,000, in order to provide active oscillation control forcomposite semiconductor device 200. It is noted that, more generally,the expression “oxide thickness” or T_(OX) may refer to the thickness oreffective thickness of any suitable gate dielectric utilized tocapacitively couple gate 250 of LV transistor 240 to a body region of LVtransistor 240 (body region not shown in FIG. 2). Thus, as used herein,T_(OX) may refer to gate dielectrics other than oxides.

Referring now to FIG. 3, FIG. 3 shows a cross-sectional view of oneimplementation of LV transistor 340 suitable for use in a compositesemiconductor device and configured to provide active oscillationcontrol. As shown in FIG. 3, LV transistor 340 is situated in well 362formed in substrate 360, and includes source 342, drain 344, and gate350. As further shown in FIG. 3, LV transistor 340 also includes gatedielectric 352 having thickness (e.g., T_(OX)) 354, spacers 356 a and356 b, and body region 346 having body implant 349. LV transistor 340including source 342, drain 344, and gate 350 corresponds to LVtransistor 240 including source 242, drain 244, and gate 250, in FIG. 2.

According to the implementation shown in FIG. 3, LV transistor 340 isrepresented as a FET. When implemented as such, LV transistor 340 may befabricated as an n-channel device (NFET) or p-channel device (HET).Although for the purposes of the present discussion LV device 340 willbe described as an NFET, that example characterization is not to beinterpreted as a limitation.

When LV transistor 340 is implemented as an NFET, well 362 may be a Ptype well formed in substrate 360, which may include an epitaxial regionformed on a silicon substrate, for example (epitaxial region notdistinguished as such in FIG. 3). Moreover, in such an implementation,source 342 and drain 344 may be heavily doped N+ regions, while bodyregion 346 may include a P type body implant 349, such as a boronimplant, for example. Gate 350 may be formed of a suitable gate metal,or of a doped polysilicon, for example, while gate dielectric 352 may beformed of a gate oxide, such as silicon oxide (SiO₂) or, alternatively,a low-k dielectric in various implementations to achieve an increasedT_(OX), as discussed further below. Spacers 356 a and 356 b can besilicon nitride (Si₃N₄) spacers, for example, and can be formed usingany suitable technique, as known in the art.

As discussed above, it may be advantageous to reduce the gain (A) ofcomposite semiconductor device 200, in FIG. 2, to less thanapproximately 10,000 in order to enhance its resistance to undesirableoscillations. That may be achieved through reduction of thetransconductance (gm) of composite semiconductor device 200, whichincludes the transconductance of LV transistor 240 (gm_(LV)) as well asthe transconductance of III-nitride power transistor 210 (gm_(III-N)).For example, the small signal gain of composite semiconductor 200 may bedescribed by Equation 1:

A=(gm_(LV))*(gm_(III-N))*(r _(O-LV))*(r _(O-III-N))   Equation 1:

where r_(O-LV) is the output resistance of LV transistor 240 andr_(O-III-N) is the output resistance of III-nitride power transistor210.

In order to reduce or eliminate oscillations and render compositesemiconductor device 200 substantially stable, the gain (A) may bereduced and optimized, such as by being limited to less thanapproximately 10,000, for example. Such a reduction in the gain can beachieved through reduction of one or more of the gain componentsappearing in Equation 1, i.e., one or more of gm_(LV), gm_(III-N),r_(O-LV), and r_(O-III-N). For example, LV transistor 240 may have atransconductance (gm_(LV)) in a range from approximately 1.0 mho toapproximately 50.0 mhos and an output resistance (r_(O-LV)) in a rangefrom approximately 0.4Ω to approximately 20.0Ω, while III-nitride powertransistor 210 may have a transconductance (gm_(III-N)) in a range fromapproximately 10.0 mhos to approximately 500.0 mhos and an outputresistance (r_(O-III-N)) in a range from approximately 0.1Ω toapproximately 5.0Ω, with the additional constraint that the product:[(gm_(LV))*(gm_(III-N))*(r_(O-LV))*(r_(O-III-N))] yield a gain of lessthan 10,000, such as a gain as low as approximately 1.0.

With respect to gm_(LV), the proportionality relationship of gm_(LV) toT_(OX) is described by Equation 2:

gm_(LV)∝1/T_(OX);   Equation 2:

Thus, modifying the oxide thickness by increasing T_(OX) decreasesgm_(LV) and consequently the gain (A) of composite semiconductor device200. As a result, LV transistor 240 can provide active oscillationcontrol for composite semiconductor device 200 by being configured so asto have a gain limiting (e.g., increased) T_(OX).

Referring to FIG. 3, gate dielectric thickness 354 corresponding toT_(OX) can be increased either in effect, or in fact, to provide activeoscillation control for the composite semiconductor device including LVtransistor 340. An increase in fact of gate dielectric thickness 354 maybe accomplished by fabricating LV transistor 340 to have increased gatedielectric thickness 354. Alternatively, an increase in effect of gatedielectric thickness 354 may be accomplished by fabricating LVtransistor 340 to include a low-k gate dielectric 352, such as, by wayof examples and without limitation, porous silica, fluorinated amorphouscarbon, aromatic hydrocarbon, carbon-doped oxide, parylene, polyaryleneether, silsesquioxane, fluorinated silicon dioxide, and diamondlikecarbon.

Referring once again to Equation 1, another possible gain limitingcomponent is the output resistance of LV transistor 340, i.e., r_(O-LV).As may be understood, r_(O-LV) can be reduced in order to reduce oreliminate oscillations in the composite semiconductor device includingLV transistor 340 by fabricating LV transistor 340 so as to have a gainlimiting body implant as body implant 349. For example, in the describedexemplary NFET implementation, the energy and dosage of the boronimplant used to produce body implant 349 can be modified to reduce theoutput resistance r_(O-LV) of LV transistor 340.

Thus, by utilizing an LV device having one or both of a reduced outputresistance and a reduced transconductance due to a modified oxidethickness, and cascoding the LV device with a III-nitride powertransistor, the present application discloses implementations ofcomposite semiconductor devices with active oscillation control. As aresult, an LV group IV device can be advantageously cascoded with anormally ON III-nitride power transistor to produce a rugged, normallyOFF HV composite device displaying high durability and stable operationin high current applications.

From the above description it is manifest that various techniques can beused for implementing the concepts described in the present applicationwithout departing from the scope of those concepts. Moreover, while theconcepts have been described with specific reference to certainimplementations, a person of ordinary skill in the art would recognizethat changes can be made in form and detail without departing from thespirit and the scope of those concepts. As such, the describedimplementations are to be considered in all respects as illustrative andnot restrictive. It should also be understood that the presentapplication is not limited to the particular implementations describedherein, but many rearrangements, modifications, and substitutions arepossible without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.

1-20. (canceled)
 21. A normally OFF composite semiconductor deviceincluding an active oscillation control, said normally OFF compositesemiconductor device comprising: a normally ON III-nitride powertransistor; a low voltage (LV) device cascoded with said normally ONIII-nitride power transistor to form said normally OFF compositesemiconductor device; said LV device having a reduced output resistanceto cause a gain of said normally OFF composite semiconductor device tobe less than approximately 10,000, wherein said normally ON III-nitridepower transistor comprises a III-nitride field-effect transistor (III-NFET).
 22. The normally OFF composite semiconductor device of claim 21,wherein said LV device comprises an LV group IV semiconductor device.23. The normally OFF composite semiconductor device of claim 21, whereinsaid LV device comprises an LV field-effect transistor (LV FET).
 24. Thenormally OFF composite semiconductor device of claim 21, wherein saidnormally ON III-nitride power transistor and said LV device aremonolithically integrated.
 25. A composite semiconductor deviceincluding an active oscillation control, said composite semiconductordevice comprising: a III-nitride power transistor; a low voltage (LV)transistor; a drain of said LV transistor coupled to a source saidIII-nitride power transistor, a source of said LV transistor providing acomposite source for said composite semiconductor device, and a gate ofsaid LV transistor providing a composite gate for said compositesemiconductor device, a drain of said III-nitride power transistorproviding a composite drain for said composite semiconductor device, agate of said III-nitride power transistor being coupled to said sourceof said LV transistor; said LV transistor having a reduced outputresistance due to a modified body implant to cause a gain of saidcomposite semiconductor device to be less than approximately 10,000,wherein said III-nitride power transistor comprises a III-nitridefield-effect transistor (III-N FET).
 26. The composite semiconductordevice of claim 25, wherein said LV transistor comprises an LV group IVsemiconductor transistor.
 27. The composite semiconductor device ofclaim 25, wherein said LV transistor comprises an LV siliconfield-effect transistor (FET).
 28. The composite semiconductor device ofclaim 25, wherein said LV transistor is one of an LVmetal-oxide-semiconductor FET (LV MOSFET) and an LVmetal-insulator-semiconductor FET (LV MISFET).
 29. The compositesemiconductor device of claim 25, wherein said III-nitride powertransistor and said LV transistor are monolithically integrated.
 30. Acomposite semiconductor device including an active oscillation control,said composite semiconductor device comprising: a III-nitride powertransistor; a low voltage (LV) transistor; a drain of said LV transistorcoupled to a source said III-nitride power transistor, a source of saidLV transistor providing a composite source for said compositesemiconductor device, and a gate of said LV transistor providing acomposite gate for said composite semiconductor device, a drain of saidIII-nitride power transistor providing a composite drain for saidcomposite semiconductor device, a gate of said III-nitride powertransistor being coupled to said source of said LV transistor; said LVtransistor having a reduced transconductance due to a modified oxidethickness to cause a gain of said composite semiconductor device to beless than approximately 10,000, wherein said III-nitride powertransistor comprises a III-nitride field-effect transistor (III-N FET).31. The composite semiconductor device of claim 30, wherein said LVtransistor comprises an LV group IV semiconductor transistor.
 32. Thecomposite semiconductor device of claim 30, wherein said LV transistorcomprises an LV silicon field-effect transistor (FET).
 33. The compositesemiconductor device of claim 30, wherein said LV transistor is one ofan LV metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (LV MOSFET) and an LVmetal-insulator-semiconductor FET (LV MISFET).
 34. The compositesemiconductor device of claim 30, wherein said III-nitride powertransistor and said LV transistor are monolithically integrated.